Fulvic acid–functionalized Fe3O4 nanoparticles enhance Chinese kale tolerance to saline–alkali stress via antioxidant and metabolic reprogramming

Key Points

• The research aims to evaluate how fulvic acid-functionalized Fe3O4 nanoparticles affect Chinese kale under saline-alkali stress.
• Utilized Fe3O4 nanoparticles functionalized with fulvic acid.
• Applied nanoparticles to Chinese kale subjected to saline-alkali conditions.
• Assessed growth, photosynthesis, antioxidant defense, and metabolic changes.
• Significant improvements in growth metrics were observed.
• Enhanced photosynthesis rates were recorded.
• Increased antioxidant defense mechanisms were induced.
• Metabolic reprogramming was confirmed, indicating a shift in metabolic processes.