Causation and consequence: political freedom and women's leadership in ASEAN politics

Purpose To achieve the sustainable development goals, women must have equitable leadership and involvement in politics and public life to promote inclusivity in problem-solving. Several studies have established the relationships between democracy, women's participation in democracy and gender equality. To capture an underexplored avenue, this study examined the causal relationships between political freedom and women's leadership and political participation. Design/methodology/approach In this quantitative study, we used five statistical procedures: (1) cross-sectional dependence test, (2) slope homogeneity test, (3) second-generation unit root analysis, (4) co-integration analysis and (5) Dumitrescu–Hurlin causality. Causality was tested using the Dumitrescu–Hurlin methodology with panel data for eight Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) countries and yearly observations for 2006–2023. Findings The co-integration test confirmed the existence of a long-run relationship between political freedom and women's leadership and political participation. The causality test demonstrated bidirectional causality between the two variables. Political freedom influenced women's leadership and participation and vice versa. Research limitations/implications As the sample included only ASEAN member countries, the results may differ from those of other countries, limiting their generalisability. Practical implications Our study verified that political freedom allows women to rise to political leadership positions. Furthermore, empowered, elected, and agenda-setting women expand political freedoms. Hence, the findings can serve as a reference for ASEAN analysts and policymakers to develop long-term gender-oriented reforms that enhance women's leadership and political participation in ASEAN countries. Originality/value The study's novelty lies in its causal investigation of the relationships between political freedom and women's leadership and political participation. It contributes to the public leadership literature by demonstrating how political freedom influences women's leadership and political participation.