Social and values heterogeneity, and the crisis of liberal democracy: classical liberal diagnostic and modus vivendi governance solutions

Abstract To uphold classical liberal values in the 21st century, it is crucial to recognize that the classical liberal tradition itself emerged as a profound response to the crisis of pluralism triggered by the breakdown - during the Protestant Reformation- of a unified and coherent worldview centered around the Catholic Church. Any attempt to address contemporary challenges by drawing on the lessons, insights, and intellectual tools of the liberal tradition must begin with a thorough examination of this foundational reality. Specifically, we must revisit the issues of deep social heterogeneity, incommensurability, and the pluralism of worldviews, values, and beliefs among individuals, communities, and societies. This paper will first identify and explore these aspects before shifting the discussion to the governance structures necessary for managing such complexities. The analysis will emphasize three key principles or features of a governance system designed to address the challenges of pluralism, heterogeneity of views, values, and lifestyles, and the resulting tensions and trade-offs: polycentricity (E. and V. Ostrom), catallaxy (F. A. Hayek), and modus vivendi (B. Williams).