Water distribution systems (WDSs) are vital components of public infrastructure, ensuring the safe supply of drinking water. However, they are increasingly exposed to technical failures, contamination events, natural disasters, and cyberattacks. This review analyses global risks to water distribution systems (WDSs), focusing on biological, chemical, and cyber threats, and compares international approaches to detection, monitoring, and crisis management. Special attention is given to advanced technologies, such as sensors, digital modelling, and innovative disinfection methods, that enhance resilience and enable rapid contamination response. Case-based insights from the Czech Republic illustrate the strengths of a system with consistently high water quality standards while also revealing vulnerabilities linked to ageing infrastructure, limited digitalisation, and emerging risks related to climate change and cybersecurity. The review further highlights differences in international hygiene standards and regulatory frameworks and their implications for water safety. Future research priorities include: (I) predictive modelling and machine learning for contamination dynamics; (II) advanced disinfection combining UV, ozone, and nanomaterials; (III) systematic study of biofilms and microbial resistance; (IV) monitoring and risk assessment of pharmaceuticals, PFASs, and other emerging contaminants; (V) development of rapid, low-cost sensors and biosensors for real-time detection; and (VI) socio-technical studies addressing risk communication and public trust in drinking-water systems. Recommendations focus on systematic infrastructure renewal, enhanced monitoring and predictive modelling, and stronger integration of crisis preparedness and cybersecurity. Overall, the results underline the need for sustained investment, technological innovation, and cross-sector cooperation to ensure long-term water security.
Horníček et al. (Fri,) studied this question.