AbstractHuman-Machine Interfaces (HMIs) represent a transformative convergence of biology, neuroscience and engineering, enabling direct communication between the human body and external devices. This review explores HMIs from a biological perspective, emphasizing the fundamental role of neural, muscular and sensory systems in shaping interface design and function. It begins by outlining the neurophysiological mechanisms underlying electrophysiological signal processing, the musculoskeletal principles that support myoelectric control and the sensory pathways critical to creating responsive biofeedback loops. The review further delves into the importance of biomaterial biocompatibility, particularly in the context of implantable devices and long-term tissue integration. Current technologies—including brain-computer interfaces, wearable bioelectronics and neuroprosthetics—are examined for their therapeutic applications, particularly in restoring sensory or motor function in individuals with neurological or physical impairments. Emerging innovations such as AI-integrated systems, flexible bioelectronics and optogenetics offer a glimpse into future bio-integrated platforms that are more adaptive, personalized and less invasive. The paper concludes by highlighting key research directions, including synthetic biology, peripheral nerve modulation and ethical considerations surrounding neural augmentation. By placing biological principles at the core of interface development, this review underscores the importance of interdisciplinary collaboration in building HMIs that are not only functional but also harmoniously aligned with human physiology.
Singh et al. (Wed,) studied this question.