Abstract As the basic constituent of concrete, which is currently the most consumed solid material in the world, cement undergoes continuous research and development for improvement of its intrinsic limitations such as brittleness, low specific strength and vulnerability to degradation. Graphene oxide (GO) has emerged as a promising nano-modifier for cement and concrete, while recent findings indicate that its defected forms (dGO), enriched with oxygen functionalities and lattice irregularities, may offer superior reinforcement capabilities. In this sense, defect engineering, which constitutes the deliberate introduction of structural irregularities and imperfections such as holes, vacancies, atoms substitutions and crystallographic defects in a lattice, is a powerful tool for tailoring materials for structural applications. This review consolidates the current understanding of defect engineering in GO and its role in cementitious composites. The fundamental structure-property relationships of dGO are discussed, with emphasis on how vacancies, functional groups and other types of defects influence physicochemical behaviour. Particular attention is given to the interactions of dGO with cement hydration products, where defects enhance nucleation, interfacial bonding, and dispersion stability, resulting in refined pore structures and improved durability. Applications are critically assessed across mechanical, thermal, and sensing domains, highlighting the capacity of dGO to improve strength, toughness, thermal regulation, fire resistance, and self-sensing functionality. Remaining challenges – including scalable synthesis, dispersion strategies and long-term durability are identified as key barriers to field implementation. Overall, this review underscores defect engineering as a powerful route for designing next-generation, multifunctional cement-based composites that are stronger, more durable, and compatible with sustainable and smart infrastructure goals.
Gorgolis et al. (Thu,) studied this question.