Spatiotemporal patterns of water and land in the global production and consumption of tropical fruits

Tropical fruits, whose cultivation depends heavily on large amounts of water and land, are consumed globally but produced only in regions with specific climatic conditions. It follows that the environmental pressures caused by tropical fruit production are extremely concentrated and mostly driven by foreign demand. By assessing the water and land associated with global production and consumption of 10 tropical fruits in historical series (2000–2021), this study estimates the magnitude and direction of water and land embodied in international trade of tropical fruits. The global production of these fruits used approximately 296 Gm3 of green water, 33 Gm3 of blue water and 30 million hectares of land. In 2021, domestic consumption of coconuts had the highest water usage, both green (130 Gm3) and blue (15 Gm3), and required the most land (10 Mha). From 2000 to 2021, avocado showed the greatest increase in green and blue water embodied in trade, as well as in the land embodied in trade. The study highlights the largest international flows of water and land embodied in trade, revealing that generally, they flow from developing (especially South-Central America) to developed (especially U.S.) countries where tropical fruits have become staple foods. In some cases, these trade patterns could intensify water stress and pressure on land-use pressure in exporting regions. Despite this, developing countries remain the largest consumers of water and land associated with domestic consumption tropical fruits. This paper discusses the main drivers of these flows, identifying key consumers, their trade partners and potential mitigation strategies.