This study examined the development of advanced theory of mind (AToM) across cultural contexts by comparing Japanese and German elementary school children. In Study 1, 401 Japanese children (8- to 12-year-olds) completed a paper-based AToM battery assessing social reasoning, norm recognition, and reasoning about ambiguity. Study 2 compared a matched subset of Japanese children (n = 148) with German peers (n = 148) using propensity score matching. German children showed higher performance on recursive ToM and norm recognition, particularly in early grades; Japanese children demonstrated more gradual gains. Factor analysis revealed a universal three-factor AToM structure across cultures. These findings support a concept-integrative view of AToM as a shared framework shaped by cultural learning environments and communicative norms, with implications for culturally responsive education.
Osterhaus et al. (Tue,) studied this question.