This article examines how proxy warfare has changed in the twenty-first century amid rising intrastate conflicts, fragmented sovereignty, and evolving geopolitical rivalries. It brings together recent scholarship that moves beyond Cold War hierarchical models toward relational and networked frameworks emphasizing goal alignment, agency, and multilateral sponsor–proxy interactions. The review identifies three major trends: (1) the conceptual shift from control-based to preference- and interaction-based models, including the use of neutral analytical terms such as Beneficiary, Proxy, and Target; (2) the growing importance of limited statehood, heterarchical orders, and fragmented authority as both causes and consequences of proxy intervention; and (3) the expansion of proxy politics into new domains, including small-state strategies, peacekeeping as indirect intervention, ideological competition, and AI-mediated decision-making. These shifts show how proxy warfare has become a central, multifaceted feature of contemporary conflict and international politics.
Nader Ganji (Wed,) studied this question.