Aim/Purpose: Despite growing interest in metaverse-based education, empirical research on its accessibility and effectiveness for deaf and hard-of-hearing (DHH) learners remains virtually absent. This study addresses this critical gap by providing an empirical examination of how DHH students experience engagement, multi-modal interaction, and social presence in a metaverse-based geometry learning environment. Background: Guided by self-determination theory, multimodal learning principles, and embodied social presence theory, this study examines how metaverse affordances align with DHH learners’ visual-spatial strengths and communicative needs in geometry education. Methodology: This research adopted an explanatory sequential mixed-methods design involving ten Malaysian DHH secondary students who participated in four metaverse-based geometry lessons. Quantitative data were collected through questionnaires measuring engagement, visual-interactive features, and social presence. Qualitative follow-up interviews were conducted with five students. Contribution: This study provides novel empirical evidence that metaverse environments, when designed with visual-gestural affordances, can effectively support inclusive STEM learning for DHH students, a population often underrepresented in educational technology research. Practical design principles for accessible metaverse instruction are discussed. Findings: Students reported high engagement (M = 4.62), positive perceptions of visual-interactive features (M = 4.51), and strong social presence (M = 4.58). They valued 3D object manipulation, avatar customization, and spatial exploration, reporting that these features enhanced engagement and interest. A comparatively lower score for sustained attention (M = 4.10) indicated that visually rich environments require careful scaffolding to manage cognitive load. Recommendations for Practitioners: Accessibility should be embedded from the outset. Interactive features such as 3D objects and avatars should serve clear pedagogical purposes. Collaborative tools should be intentionally structured with explicit task guidance. Teachers should provide explicit guidance, model navigation strategies, and introduce tools gradually. Recommendation for Researchers: Future work should incorporate comparison conditions, longitudinal designs, and achievement-based measures. Researchers should investigate individual differences such as prior technology experience, working memory capacity, and communication preferences. Impact on Society: The findings demonstrate potential for metaverse-based learning to support both conceptual understanding and social inclusion for DHH learners, contributing to more equitable and rigorous STEM education. Future Research: Future studies should include larger, more diverse cohorts across schools and contexts, examine how avatar customization shapes motivation and identity, and evaluate advanced accessibility supports such as AI-supported signing avatars, gesture recognition, and adaptive captioning.
Chong et al. (Thu,) studied this question.