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This review aims to integrate lithium extraction methods with the effective utilization of solid residues.

April 28, 2026Open Access

A systematic review of hydrometallurgical processes for lithium extraction from hard rock minerals, with a focus on enhanced utilisation of Delithiated Residues

MFMaryam FallahzadehThe University of Western Australia ANAleksandar N. NikoloskiMurdoch University HCHui Tong ChuaThe University of Western Australia

Key Points

This review aims to integrate lithium extraction methods with the effective utilization of solid residues.
Systematic review following PRISMA guidelines
Evaluation of various hydrometallurgical routes such as roasting and solvent leaching
Analysis of solid waste valorisation in construction materials like concrete and geopolymers.
10 to 15 tonnes of solid waste produced per tonne of lithium carbonate, necessitating improved methods.
Utilization of 10–30% residue in concrete enhances durability and strength.
Strict control of fluorine and sulfate in residues is crucial for environmental safety.

Abstract

• A first review integrating lithium extraction routes with solid residue valorisation. • 10 to 15 tonnes of solid waste generated per tonne of lithium carbonate produced. • Sulfate and amorphous phase content govern the pozzolanic reactivity of leach residue. • 10–30% residue in concrete improves durability and long-term strength. • Extraction routes determine residue safety; fluorine and sulfate need strict control. Due to surging global demand for batteries and renewable energy technologies, lithium extraction from hard-rock lithium deposits has become a critical challenge. Conventional extraction processing involves high-temperature roasting, which is energy-intensive and generates large volumes of solid residues and heavy metal mobilisation, indicating the need for alternative efficient techniques. This systematic review paper, using the PRISMA guidelines, covers recent advances in hydrometallurgical lithium extraction processing from common hard-rock lithium ores such as spodumene, lepidolite, petalite, amblygonite, and zinnwaldite. The study investigates a range of processes, including acid and alkaline roasting, sulfation, chlorination, carbonation, fluorination, and emerging solvent leaching techniques, highlighting optimal reaction conditions to achieve higher lithium extraction efficiency. In addition, this work addresses valorisation of valuable by-products as supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) in concrete, geopolymers, zeolites, ceramics, and road construction. By linking optimised extraction routes with efficient waste utilisation, this comprehensive review addresses key knowledge gaps and offers a coherent perspective on integrating lithium extraction with circular economy practices. Characterisation of leaching residues is also investigated for a better understanding of viable process adjustments to minimise environmental impacts. This review paper sheds insight into future research directions and supports the development of more sustainable industrial lithium extraction processes.

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