Additive manufacturing enables the development of low-cost, self-built robotic systems; however, their performance is typically not characterized by validated metrics. The paper presents a photogrammetric concept intended for system-independent application to characterize planar positioning accuracy and repeatability without access to internal controller data. The method is based on a Raspberry Pi 4 camera system, image processing in Python 3.12.0 and OpenCV 4.12.0, and a universal additively manufactured robot tool attachment. Two position estimation strategies are investigated: a marker-based approach using ArUco markers and a markerless blob-analysis method based on a ruby sphere. Camera calibration is evaluated using different patterns, with a compact CharUco board exhibiting the lowest RMS reprojection error (~1 px). Experimental validation follows selected elements of ISO 9283:1998 and comprises 30 repetitions at five target poses for linear and axial motion strategies. The results show lower positional deviations for marker-based methods compared to the markerless approach, with a two-marker configuration yielding the lowest mean deviation under the investigated conditions. Sub-millimeter positioning accuracy and repeatability are achieved, and linear motion exhibits lower repeatability deviations than axial motion. The proposed approach provides a cost-effective and flexible solution for external robot characterization, particularly suited for self-built and resource-constrained systems.
Chajón et al. (Mon,) studied this question.