Fine particulate matter (PM₂.₅) exposure remains a major global public health concern, especially in low-resource countries where biomass fuels are commonly used for household energy. In these environments, extended indoor cooking and poor ventilation increase pregnant women’s vulnerability to PM₂.₅ exposure. However, no study in Ethiopia has directly measured personal PM2.5 exposure among pregnant women. Therefore, this study aimed to assess personal PM₂.₅ exposure level and associated factors among pregnant women residing in rural Butajira, Ethiopia. A community-based longitudinal cohort study with repeated measures was conducted between March and June 2025 among 328 pregnant women. Personal exposure to PM₂.₅ was measured at averagely 20, 30, and 36 weeks of gestation using Atmotube Pro air quality monitors. Structured questionnaires were used to collect socio-demographic, household, and cooking-related characteristics. Mean group differences were tested using one-way ANOVA and independent t-tests. A linear mixed-effects regression model with robust SEs was used to identify factors influencing personal PM2.5 exposure. Variables with p < 0.20 in bivariable analysis entered to multivariable model, and the estimated regression coefficients and their 95% confidence intervals were exponentiated to express results as multiplicative effects on PM₂.₅ exposure. A total of 328 pregnant women contributed 923 repeated PM2.5 measurements. The mean personal PM₂.₅ exposure was 237.4 µg/m³ (SD ± 17.6) at 20 weeks, 233.8 µg/m³ (SD ± 15.7) at 30 weeks, and 256.6 µg/m³ (SD ± 13.1) at 36 weeks of pregnancy, with overall mean exposure of 242.3 µg/m³ (SD ± 15.6). Highland residents, women spent more than five hours a day in cooking, and women who lived in homes with thatched roofs were attributed to higher exposures. Using crop and animal residue, age of women, being housewife, farmer partner, living in highland area, low wealth index, and partner negligence were predictors of personal PM2.5 exposure. Personal PM₂.₅ exposure levels among pregnant women were 16-fold higher than the guideline values recommended by the World Health Organization. Living in highland area, using crop and animal residue as fuel source, and partner negligence were factors for personal PM2.5 exposure. Reducing maternal exposure may be achieved through encouraging clean cooking technologies, enhancing ventilation, and incorporating males in energy decision-making.
Shine et al. (Thu,) studied this question.