Abstract A comprehensive three‑dimensional understanding of limb venous anatomy, including venous pathways, valve distribution, and superficial–deep connections, is essential for anatomical education and preclinical surgical training. However, preparation of venous anatomical specimens remains technically challenging because of venous valves, fragile vessel walls, leakage, and incomplete perfusion using conventional techniques, which limits their pedagogical value and reproducibility. The present study aimed to develop and validate a standardized venous perfusion protocol for producing high‑fidelity venous specimens of human limbs. Fifteen fresh adult cadaveric limb specimens were prepared using an optimized technique incorporating ammonia solution pre‑perfusion, bidirectional venous cannulation through dorsal venous networks and transected major veins, latex perfusion assisted by directional manual massage and selective micro‑needle valve penetration, localized leakage control, staged supplementary perfusion, and low‑temperature curing followed by formalin fixation. Following anatomical dissection, 14 of 15 specimens demonstrated complete and continuous perfusion of both superficial and deep venous systems. Major venous structures, distal branches, venous valves, and anastomotic patterns were clearly visualized with accurate in situ morphology and preserved spatial relationships. This optimized approach reliably overcomes key limitations of traditional venous perfusion methods and yields durable, anatomically accurate specimens that enhance three‑dimensional learning and provide realistic, non‑biological platforms for procedural skills training, thereby bridging anatomical science and applied surgical education.
Liu et al. (Thu,) studied this question.