ABSTRACT Extreme events increasingly trigger widespread blackouts, highlighting the urgent need to enhance distribution system resilience. While dynamic microgrid formation leveraging distributed energy resources (DERs) and soft open points (SOPs) offers a promising restoration strategy, existing approaches often overlook the critical issue of frequency stability in the resultant, often low‐inertia, microgrids. To address this gap, this paper proposes a frequency‐constrained dynamic MGF framework for resilient distribution system restoration. The framework explicitly models the frequency response characteristics of grid‐forming DERs and embeds key frequency security constraints, including the rate of change of frequency, frequency nadir and steady‐state frequency deviation, directly into the optimisation problem. By co‐optimising the dispatch of DERs (diesel generators, renewable energy sources and energy storage systems) and the reconfiguration of network topology via remote‐controlled switches and SOPs, the proposed model ensures stable operation during sequential load pickups. Furthermore, it enables parallel restoration from multiple black‐start units and dynamic boundary merging of microgrids, significantly improving restoration efficiency and adaptability. Numerical simulations demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed method in maximising restored load while maintaining frequency stability throughout the restoration process.
Li et al. (Thu,) studied this question.