This study examines the relationship between AI/GPT tools’ technological proficiency and students’ self-efficacy in Saudi higher education. It further explores the mediating roles of students’ attitudes towards mobile learning (M-learning) and AI/GPT usage behaviour, along with the moderating effects of emotional creepiness and perceived influence of AI technology. Data were collected from 239 undergraduate students using a structured questionnaire. The findings reveal that technological proficiency significantly enhances students’ self-efficacy. Both attitudes towards M-learning and AI/GPT usage behaviour act as significant mediators, strengthening this relationship. Additionally, emotional creepiness weakens the positive impact of technological proficiency, whereas the perceived influence of AI technology reinforces it. The study highlights the importance of addressing emotional barriers and fostering positive engagement with AI tools to maximize educational outcomes. These findings contribute to the growing literature on AI adoption in education by integrating cognitive, behavioural, and emotional dimensions within a unified framework.
Muneer et al. (Thu,) studied this question.