Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) is a major global health concern with complex pathophysiology and long-term neurological, cognitive, and psychosocial consequences. Although advances in neuroimaging, biomarkers, and neurorehabilitation have improved diagnosis and management, outcomes remain variable due to injury heterogeneity and limited targeted therapies. This review summarises current evidence on TBI mechanisms, diagnostic tools, management strategies, rehabilitation practices, and emerging technologies, while highlighting key gaps and future priorities. A comprehensive literature search of peer-reviewed articles, clinical guidelines, and contemporary research databases was conducted. Studies addressing acute care, monitoring, surgical intervention, rehabilitation, and advanced technologies such as Brain-Computer Interfaces (BCIs) were evaluated. Recent progress underscores the utility of multimodal neuroimaging, such as diffusion tensor imaging and quantitative MRI, for detecting microstructural injury and supporting clinical decisions. Blood-based biomarkers, including GFAP, UCH-L1, and NFL, offer promise for rapid assessment and prognosis. Current management continues to focus on preventing secondary injury through optimised ventilation, hemodynamic stability, hyperosmolar agents, and stepwise intracranial pressure control, while surgical interventions are guided by clear radiological thresholds. Rehabilitation benefits from coordinated multidisciplinary care that integrates physical, cognitive, and behavioural therapies. Emerging rehabilitation tools, such as BCIs, robotic- assisted systems, and virtual-reality platforms, show early promise for enhancing functional recovery, though evidence remains limited and requires larger, standardised studies. Despite important diagnostic and rehabilitative advances, TBI management still lacks unified biomarkers, standard imaging criteria, and robust evidence for emerging therapies. Coordinated multicentred research and personalised, technology-integrated care models remain essential to improve long-term outcomes.
Patel et al. (Tue,) studied this question.