Product-Service Systems (PSS) show the potential to foster the implementation of circular economy (CE) R-strategies such as reuse, remanufacturing, or refurbishment. However, while R-strategies embedded in PSS can reduce environmental burdens and extend product lifecycles, they also introduce complexity in terms of system design, operation, and evaluation. R-strategies have major impacts in various dimensions on the entire PSS lifecycle. These impacts lead to shifts in environmental burdens across several product generations and affect the environmental impacts on a systems level. This raises the challenge to assess these impacts in the life cycle engineering of PSS. This paper presents an assessment methodology for the circularity of PSS. The methodology makes it possible to quantify the five dimensions of raw materials used, waste generated, environmental impact, life cycle costs, and extended product life. The assessment methodology consists of a combination of System Dynamics (SD) modeling, Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), and Life Cycle Costing (LCC). SD modeling is used to quantify material streams on a systems level to assess the used raw materials and generation of waste. After normalization of the results of the SD model simulation, LCC and LCA are used to assess economic and environmental impacts, including the costs of implementation and induced environmental impacts for R-strategies. This methodology can support decision-making by identifying the impact of R-strategies across the entire PSS lifecycle. The methodology also makes it possible to examine trade-off scenarios where R-strategies might lead to improvements in one dimension but deteriorate another.
Werrel et al. (Thu,) studied this question.