History repeats itself is one of the well-known idioms, suggesting that patterns of events tend to recur over time and often lead to similar outcomes. By observing and learning from past patterns, valuable insights into the present and future can be gained. This recurring pattern is not limited to human society but is also evident in the evolution of technology. History is often described as a linear sequence of progress in which older technologies are replaced and left behind. Yet, time and again, innovation frequently follows a different trajectory: Ideas once considered obsolete can reemerge in unexpected and transformative ways. The vacuum tube is a compelling example of such technological recurrence.
Heo et al. (Sun,) studied this question.