The evolution of sepsis care: from protocol-driven management to personalized intensive care

PURPOSE: Sepsis remains one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Despite evolving supportive therapeutic strategies, outcomes, particularly in severe disease manifestations, remain unsatisfactory. In recent years, the conceptual understanding of sepsis has undergone a fundamental shift: from a uniform disease entity to a heterogeneous syndrome characterized by variable pathophysiology and diverse clinical trajectories. In parallel, key aspects of diagnosis and management have been re-evaluated in the context of recently updated guidelines as well as international consensus statements. METHODS: This review integrates recent guideline updates and emerging concepts in sepsis management into a clinically oriented synthesis. Particular focus is placed on evolving approaches to infection control, hemodynamic stabilization, tissue perfusion-oriented resuscitation, individualized antimicrobial strategies, and the concept of refractory septic shock. RESULTS: In the early phase, sepsis management continues to rely predominantly on standardized interventions focused on rapid infection control and hemodynamic stabilization. As the disease progresses, however, therapeutic strategies increasingly require continuous reassessment and adaptation to the individual patient context. Recent guideline developments therefore reflect a broader shift from rigid protocol-driven algorithms toward more flexible, context-sensitive, and physiology-guided approaches. A central component of this evolution is the growing emphasis on tissue perfusion-oriented resuscitation, individualized hemodynamic management, and risk-adapted antimicrobial strategies. Another important recent development is the proposed definition of refractory septic shock, which aims to identify a subgroup of patients with persistent hemodynamic instability and tissue hypoperfusion despite guideline-based initial therapy. Beyond its prognostic relevance, this concept may provide a pragmatic framework for structured therapeutic escalation and phenotype-guided treatment strategies. CONCLUSION: Overall, contemporary sepsis care is evolving toward a staged management model in which standardized early interventions are increasingly complemented by individualized and dynamically adapted therapeutic decisions during later disease stages. Building on these developments, this review integrates recent guideline updates and emerging concepts into a clinically oriented synthesis and discusses their implications for personalized and phenotype-guided sepsis care.