The rapid advancement of generative artificial intelligence has ushered in a new wave of highly sophisticated phishing attacks. This paper examines the evolving threat landscape in which malicious actors leverage AI to craft large-scale, personalised, and highly convincing phishing campaigns. The analysis focuses on emerging attack techniques, including automated content generation, and their broader implications. Findings demonstrate that conventional defence mechanisms are increasingly inadequate against AI-driven adversarial tactics. In response, the paper underscores the need for a multi-layered cyber defence strategy that integrates AI-powered security solutions with continuous user education and awareness initiatives. Furthermore, the ethical, societal, and regulatory dimensions of malicious AI deployment are explored, emphasising the importance of global cooperation among industry, academia, and policymakers. By presenting a comprehensive overview of current challenges and future risks, the paper contributes to a deeper understanding of AI-augmented phishing and proposes a proactive, forward-looking framework aimed at strengthening cybersecurity resilience in the 21st century.
Nakovski et al. (2026) studied this question.