Urban Air Mobility (UAM) systems offer a three-dimensional transportation alternative by using low-altitude airspace, with the potential to reduce travel times and improve access to mobility in regions underserved by current transportation systems. To support efficient design and operation of UAM systems, we develop an integrated optimization framework in response to three interrelated challenges: (i) land use, aeronautical feasibility, community acceptance and other factors that restrict the number of potential locations for vertiports, (ii) bidirectional demand–supply interaction that needs to be considered, as the level of service influences demand for UAM and operators adjust the level of service in response to demand, and (iii) strong interactions between strategic decisions on the distribution of ground infrastructure, tactical decisions on eVTOL fleet size and operational decisions on dispatching and repositioning. Analyzing the decisions in isolation can lead to poor estimates of the overall system performance. The framework consists of (1) a knock-off criteria analysis model for the identification of a realistic set of candidate locations for vertiports, (2) integer programming models in which strategic, tactical and operational decision levels are modeled, and (3) pre-processing techniques to generate near-optimal solutions for real-world instances. By applying the framework in a large-scale real-world setting in the Île-de-France region, we demonstrate complex interactions between strategic, tactical, and operational decision levels and customer demand, revealing various trade-offs between operator profit and traveler generalized travel costs. • Provide realistic candidate vertiports in the Île-de-France region using knock-off criteria screening. • Integrate vertiport location selection with eVTOL fleet sizing and operations and demand interaction. • Identify non-linear trade-offs between operator profit and user generalized travel costs. • Conclusions on the economic viability of UAM operations. • Identification of UAM network structures with distinct vertiport roles.
Randeraad et al. (2026) studied this question.