Intellectual capital (IC) theory, emphasizing that the primary source of organizational value is derived from intangible, knowledge-based resources, has long been recognized as a critical driver of sustainable competitive advantage. However, as the business landscape continues to evolve in the face of technological, institutional and socio-political disruptions, and natural disturbances, it seems viable that the theories for understanding IC and practices for managing it should also be updated. This paper seeks to challenge and advance existing IC theory by presenting a forward-looking exploration of the evolving landscape of IC. We propose some critical theoretical and practical updates that can bridge the gap between conceptual advancements and real-world applications. By adopting an ecosystem-oriented approach, we highlight how IC operates across different levels of analysis- from individual to societal - and how multilevel, dynamic, and complex interactions within the IC ecosystem contribute to innovation, value creation, and sustainable development. The paper challenges traditional IC frameworks by emphasizing the fluid, interconnected nature of IC, arguing that a more holistic, dynamic model is essential for understanding and leveraging IC in today’s rapidly changing environment. Furthermore, we argue that future IC agendas must address broader concerns, including sustainability, IC ethics, IC diplomacy, fair and socially equitable distribution of value, and societal justice. Recognizing this progress in IC research and practice as essential for sustainable growth and social well-being in the coming era, we aim to contribute to a deeper understanding of emerging paradigms and to align IC theory and practice with future economic, technological and social transformations.
Cabrilo et al. (2025) studied this question.