Environmental changes and sensor aging can cause sensor drift in sensor array responses (i.e., a shift in the measured signal/feature distribution over time), which in turn degrades gas classification performance in real-world deployments of electronic-nose systems. Previous studies using the UCI Gas Sensor Array Drift Dataset as a benchmark reported promising drift compensation results but often lacked robust statistical validation and may overcompensate for drift by suppressing class-discriminative variance. To address these limitations and rigorously evaluate improvements in sensor-drift compensation, we designed two domain adaptation tasks based on the UCI electronic-nose dataset: (1) using the first batch to predict remaining batches, simulating a controlled laboratory setting, and (2) using Batches 1 through n−1 to predict Batch n, simulating continuous training data updates for online training. Then, we systematically tested three methods—our semi-supervised knowledge distillation method (KD) for sensor-drift compensation; a previously benchmarked method, Domain-Regularized Component Analysis (DRCA); and a hybrid method, KD–DRCA—across 30 random test-set partitions on the UCI dataset. We showed that semi-supervised KD consistently outperformed both DRCA and KD–DRCA, achieving up to 18% and 15% relative improvements in accuracy and F1-score, respectively, over the baseline, proving KD’s superior effectiveness in electronic-nose drift compensation. This work provides a rigorous statistical validation of KD for electronic-nose drift compensation under long-term temporal drift, with repeated randomized evaluation and significance testing, and demonstrates consistent improvements over DRCA on the UCI drift benchmark.
Lin et al. (2026) studied this question.