Light Field (LF) images provide rich visual representations of 3D scenes by capturing both spatial and angular information of light rays. However, their high dimensions present substantial challenges for conventional 2D image watermarking techniques in effectively ensuring copyright protection. In this work, we propose a deep learning-based Spatial-Angular Consistency waterMarking (SACMark) network, designed to address the unique challenges of watermark embedding and extraction in LF images. SACMark employs a spatial-angular feature extraction module to capture the multidimensional information of LF images and introduces consistency matching and fusion strategies to enhance feature utilization. The network adopts an encoder-noise-decoder architecture, optimized through adversarial training to improve the imperceptibility and robustness of the watermark. Experimental results demonstrate that SACMark maintains high visual quality across various embedding capacities and has minimal impact on depth estimation. Compared to traditional LF watermarking approaches and existing deep learning-based methods for 2D images, SACMark demonstrates improved resilience to noise while preserving essential LF characteristics. These findings suggest that SACMark holds promise for practical applications and may contribute to future developments in secure and adaptive LF image protection.
Guo et al. (2026) studied this question.