Tick–host associations across contrasting habitats in tropical Peninsular Malaysia

Abstract Background Ixodid ticks are critical vectors of pathogens affecting human, livestock, and wildlife health. In tropical regions, landscape heterogeneity is a key driver of tick–host associations, yet comprehensive studies across diverse habitats remain limited. Methods This study investigated tick infestations on a wide range of animal hosts across four major habitat types comprising natural forests, oil palm plantations, rural villages, and urban areas in Peninsular Malaysia from 2022 to 2023. Results Of 1277 hosts of 38 families and 79 species examined, 270 (21.1%) were infested with 1985 ixodid ticks, representing 16 ixodid species. The most abundant tick species were Haemaphysalis wellingtoni (44.7%), Amblyomma cordiferum (19.7%), and H . semermis (9.6%). Network and correspondence analyses revealed distinct tick–host–habitat associations: A. cordiferum , H. semermis , H . hystricis , and Ixodes granulatus were strongly associated with natural forests, whereas H. wellingtoni predominated in oil palm plantations and rural villages on domestic and jungle fowl ( Gallus gallus domesticus and Gallus gallus ). Wild boar ( Sus scrofa ) hosted the most diverse tick species, particularly in urban and rural settings. Notably, A . varanense exhibited strict specificity to reptiles. Conclusions These findings demonstrate the influence of habitat on tick–host interactions, offering critical insights for targeted surveillance and integrated One Health strategies to mitigate tick-borne disease risks in rapidly changing tropical ecosystems. Graphical abstract