LED luminaires with apertures containing visually resolvable bright spots are commonly used to illuminate outdoor environments. However, the impact of the distance between LEDs, which determines spatial frequency at a given viewing distance, on perceived discomfort caused by these luminaires remains unclear. This study involved 29 participants who were shown 68 stimuli varying in spatial frequency, intensity, diffusion level and ambient lighting in a dark laboratory setting. Participants reported their experiences of discomfort from glare, ability to resolve individual LEDs and afterimages. The findings revealed that increased spatial frequency heightened both discomfort and the likelihood of experiencing afterimages. It is hypothesized that the point spread function of the eye contributed to these effects, where sources began to be perceived as a single larger source with equal or greater intensity. These results suggest that LED luminaire designs should favour configurations with lower spatial frequencies to minimize discomfort. A simple quantity, direct illuminance at the eye, is recommended for use to predict discomfort from glare because it performed like other more complex models.
Abboushi et al. (2026) studied this question.