What question did this study set out to answer?

The aim is to highlight the inadequacies of Galilean methods in studying complex systems and to propose a new scientific method.

February 17, 2026Open Access

Tackling complex sistems. We need non-Galilean science

Key Points

The aim is to highlight the inadequacies of Galilean methods in studying complex systems and to propose a new scientific method.
Analyzed limitations of Galilean approaches to complex systems.
Examined the role of surrogate endpoints in various fields, including medicine.
Identified the need for a new scientific paradigm to address measurement challenges.
Traditional Galilean methods are inadequate for complex, multi-parameter systems.
Surrogate endpoints may not provide absolute scientific truth, highlighting measurement limitations.
Emphasizes the necessity for a revised scientific method to better study complexity.

Abstract

While Galileo studied simple linear systems, modern science attempts to study complex, multi-parameter systems, where the rigid Galilean method just cannot work. The problem is that, while it is obvious that we can measure only what we can measure, that’s not necessarily what we want, or need, to measure. Tests based on “surrogate endpoints” may well be the best we can do in medicine and other fields, but we should understand that the results are not, and cannot be, a source of absolute scientific truth. We need a new scientific method to work on these systems.

Connected Papers

Building similarity graph...

Analyzing shared references across papers

Discussion

Authors

Ugo Bardi

Actions

References and Citations

Connected Papers

Building similarity graph...

Analyzing shared references across papers

Tackling complex sistems. We need non-Galilean science

Key Points

Abstract

Citation Network

Connected Papers

Discussion

Authors

Actions

References and Citations

Citation Network

Connected Papers

Discussion

Cite this study

Also consider