Breast cancer remains a leading cause of cancer-related deaths among women globally, presenting significant challenges due to its heterogeneity and complex biology. While traditional treatments such as surgery, chemotherapy, and targeted therapies offer some benefit, the lack of universal treatment strategies underscores the need for innovative approaches. A total of 255 articles were identified through PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar up to 1 December 2025, and 30 articles were selected for inclusion in this narrative review. This narrative review focuses on cancer-testis antigens (CTAs) as potential therapeutic targets in breast cancer. The objective of this narrative review is to evaluate the therapeutic role and immunogenic characteristics of CTAs in breast cancer, with emphasis on their potential in diagnosis, prognosis, and immunotherapy. CTAs are tumor-associated antigens that are aberrantly expressed in various cancers, including breast cancer, while their expression in normal tissues is restricted to the testis. Their unique immunogenic properties make them ideal candidates for both early diagnostic tools and targeted immunotherapy. This article discusses the potential of CTAs in improving breast cancer screening, prognosis, and treatment strategies, with particular emphasis on their roles in immunotherapy and vaccine development. Furthermore, the challenges of CTA-based treatments, including antigen heterogeneity and immune evasion, are outlined, along with insights into future research directions aimed at overcoming these obstacles and improving clinical outcomes.
Sheikh-Hosseini et al. (2026) studied this question.