Objectives: This study empirically tested the Technology-Based Family Resource Model (T-BFRM) to investigate two complementary pathways through which Virtual Reality (VR) and smart home technologies enhance family emotional intimacy: VR mediated by increased parenting self-efficacy (resource acquisition pathway) and smart homes mediated by reduced parenting burden (resource conservation pathway). This study also examined the structural invariance of this model across fathers and mothers.Methods: Participants comprised 169 parent couples (N = 338) raising children aged five years and under. Quantitative data were subjected to confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), structural equation modeling (SEM), and multi-group SEM with 5,000 bootstrap re-samples, controlling for digital literacy and socioeconomic status. A concurrent qualitative component (N = 20) provided phenomenological depth to contextualize statistical pathways through parents’ lived experiences in technology-mediated family dynamics.Results: The structural model demonstrated excellent fit (CFI = .94, RMSEA = .04). VR utilization significantly enhanced family intimacy indirectly through increased parenting self-efficacy (β = .17, p 〈 .001). Smart home utilization enhanced intimacy indirectly through reduced parenting burden (β = .11, p 〈 .001). Multi-group SEM confirmed full structural invariance across genders (ΔCFI = .002, p 〉 .05), revealing gender-neutral mechanisms.Conclusion: The T-BFRM establishes VR and smart home technologies as synergistic psychosocial resources that jointly strengthen family cohesion through distinct complementary pathways. VR fosters relational mastery and competence, whereas smart homes conserve the psychological resources for emotional availability. These findings advocate for gender-neutral and technology-integrated family interventions and provide a theoretical foundation for digital equity policies that support early parental well-being.
Su Mi Lim (2026) studied this question.