Multi-functional indicators and related KPI to address socio-ecological gains with synergies and trade-offs consideration in mixed crop–livestock landscapes of Tunisian semi-arid zones

The semi-arid zones of Tunisia and similar Mediterranean eco-regions expose mixed crop–livestock landscapes to strong climatic variability, land degradation processes, and livelihood insecurity. At the same time, these landscapes deliver multiple functions, including food and feed production, soil and water regulation, rangeland services, employment, and local governance functions. Assessing such multifunctionality requires indicator systems that can capture not only individual outcomes but also the interactions, synergies, and trade-offs between ecological and social processes. This working paper proposes a hierarchical indicator framework to assess socio-ecological gains (SEG) in rainfed mixed crop–livestock landscapes. Indicators were organised from five main SEG dimensions to sixteen criteria (indicator groups) and then to 54 indicators defined by spatial scale and temporal sensitivity. Building on the socio ecological system approach and existing assessment frameworks, the paper further proposes integrated, multi-dimensional indicators—such as agroecosystem resilience, livelihood buffer and stability, landscape governance, and landscape restoration readiness—to reflect different facets of SEG and support the analysis of synergies and trade-offs through participatory, semi-quantitative, or quantitative approaches. To address practical constraints in monitoring and decision-making, a minimal indicator set of 35 indicators is derived using explicit principles, including coverage of all criteria, redundancy, feasibility of data collection, and interpretability for stakeholders. While the full indicator bundle supports detailed system analysis, the minimal set provides an operational entry point for landscape diagnostics, programme monitoring, and comparison across sites. The framework offers a structured basis for linking rainfed agricultural management choices to multi-dimensional socio-ecological outcomes in semi-arid Tunisian landscapes and comparable Mediterranean contexts.