Existing biometric systems are predominantly built upon 2D biometrics which are vulnerable to presentation attacks, and have a limited coverage of the biometric surface. 3D biometrics is emerging due to the rapid development of 3D sensing technology. 3D biometrics is effective in defending against spoofing attacks and potentially offer more robust performance under different conditions. However, there exist many challenges in developing effective 3D biometric systems in terms of 3D biometrics reconstruction and recognition. In this paper, we present a systematic survey on the latest developments of 3D biometric systems guided by our proposed taxonomy of methods for 3D biometrics.
Wang et al. (2026) studied this question.