Abstract Social-ecological systems (SES) are understood as human–environment systems that encompass all ecological and technological structures relevant to, and shaped by, human actions. They are complex systems in nature, comprising two main components – social and ecological – along with their numerous subcomponents. For analytical purposes, the SES concept must be both operational and measurable, which requires defining spatial and temporal boundaries. In this study, the municipality was selected as the basic territorial and administrative unit. In spite of their importance, evaluations and mapping of SES remain scarce, particularly in Latin America. This study assessed the SES status in a region of central-eastern Mexico - a priority biocultural region for conservation and development. The aim was to identify critical areas for interventions to enhance socio-ecological resilience and understand the key factors influencing SES. Results indicated a generally low SES status per municipality, with values ranging from -0.244 to 0.361. The highest values were observed in municipalities with high ecological integrity, low sensitivity to biophysical hazards, and stable ecosystem service availability. Spatial correlation analysis revealed a cold spot in the south-eastern area, where municipalities exhibited the lowest resilience and SES status. In contrast, a hotspot with the highest values was found in the centre of the study area, where the infrastructure (i.e., roads, hospitals) was first developed because of silver mining. A generalized linear model showed a negative correlation between Indigenous people and SES status. Urgent actions are needed to improve communication, healthcare, education, economic opportunities, to reduce their vulnerability to environmental challenges.
Larios-Lozano et al. (2026) studied this question.