This study examines sustainability constraints facing smallholder orange farmers in Muheza District, Tanzania, and identifies institutional and value-chain pathways for strengthening resilience. Using a mixed-methods design, household survey data were integrated with focus group discussions and key informant interviews conducted between January and March 2024. Descriptive statistics characterized household and production conditions, while thematic analysis captured institutional and market dynamics. A binary logistic regression model assessed factors associated with the adoption of at least one sustainable/climate-smart practice (e.g. mulching, water harvesting, intercropping). Results indicate that limited extension services, insecure land tenure, and demographic aging reduce adaptive capacity, while weak institutional support, especially exclusion from credit and limited extension coverage reinforces low-input production. Marketing is dominated by brokers and local spot markets, exposing farmers to seasonal price volatility and constraining bargaining power. Regression results show that education, land size, access to credit, access to extension services, and cooperative membership significantly increase the likelihood of adopting sustainable practices. The study concludes that vulnerabilities are interlocking: deficits in household livelihood capitals interact with structural asymmetries in value chain governance. By integrating the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework and Global Value Chain perspectives, the paper advances an analytically transferable approach for diagnosing sustainability constraints in perennial crop systems. Transferability is expected in settings characterized by constrained livelihood assets, limited credit and extension access, and broker-dominated spot markets with weak collective organization. The paper proposes policy options centered on tailored finance, strengthened extension, cooperative revitalization, and governance reforms that improve market access and incentives for sustainable practice adoption.
David Gongwe Mhando (2026) studied this question.