Co-Designing a Socially Assistive Robot Intervention for Diabetes Self-Management: Perspectives of Adults Living with Diabetes

Over 537 million adults live with diabetes, yet many lack sufficient support for effective self-management, resulting in suboptimal glycaemic levels and rising healthcare costs. Socially assistive robots (SARs) may fill this gap through offering real-time, personalised support. This study explored adults’ views on the design, usability, and acceptability of a SAR-based intervention. A three-phase exploratory co-design approach, guided by the Medical Research Council framework, involved 16 adults with type 1 and 2 diabetes in Scotland. Phase 1 involved forming a working group and conducting a scoping review. Phase 2 included two online focus groups to identify challenges, technology use, and desired SAR features; and two in-person workshops at the UK National Robotarium to assess SAR’s usability, acceptability, and integration into daily life. Phase 3 involved thematic analysis, translating user requirements, and planning future feasibility. Participants identified barriers including dietary adherence, insulin adjustments, and limited access to clinicians. Technologies like glucose monitors and insulin pumps were seen as burdensome, highlighting the need for personalised, on-demand support. In conceptualising a SAR, participants recommended interactive coaching features, such as real-time medication guidance, meal planning, emergency alerts, and data-sharing. Priorities included a user-friendly, inclusive design, strong data privacy, and integration with existing devices and care pathways. SARs offer a feasible approach to personalised self-management, with user-driven features like tailored coaching, accessible design, and healthcare connectivity improving glycaemic levels and well-being. These findings inform prototyping and evaluation of a new SAR intervention for diabetes management.