Ecotoxicological evaluation of the triazole fungicide penconazole using aquatic ( Artemia salina ) and plant-based ( Allium cepa ) bioassays.

Penconazole is one of the most widely used triazole fungicides worldwide, and its widespread distribution raises serious concerns about its toxic effects on non-target organisms. The potential toxic effects of penconazole on Artemia salina (brine shrimp) and Allium cepa (onion), which are commonly used as bioindicators, have not yet been determined. In our study, we determined that the LC50 values of penconazole for Artemia salina were 1.363, 0.637, and 0.424 µg/mL after 24, 48, and 72 h, respectively, while the EC50 value for Allium cepa root growth after 72 h was 2.96 µg/mL. Anti-mitotic results revealed that penconazole exhibited a mitotic index (MI) ranging from 11.46% to 22.32% at concentrations of EC50x2, EC50, and EC50/2 (µg/mL) compared to the negative control (44.29%). Exposure to penconazole caused dose-dependent morphological changes in Artemia nauplii and disrupted the cell cycle in Allium cepa root meristem cells. These findings indicate that exposure to penconazole poses potential risks not only to target organisms but also to other species in ecosystems. Our findings highlight the ecological risks of penconazole exposure and emphasize the need for caution in its use. Furthermore, more comprehensive studies are needed to elucidate its toxic mechanisms using various toxicity tests.