The Caprini Score for Venous Thromboembolism Risk Assessment: A Scoping Review of Applications, Validation, and Future Directions

Analysis of 275 studies (2021-2025) revealed divergent academic perspectives (Supportive 41.1%, Neutral 34.9%, Critical 24.0%).From 52 studies with paired AUC data, the mean Caprini score AUC was 0.702 (SD 0.104) versus 0.832 (SD 0.080) for refined models (mean improvement 0.130).Four principal refinement directions were quantified: Biomarker Integration (33 studies), Specialty-Specific Models (45 studies), AI/ML Application (23 studies), and Process Optimization (30 studies).Take home Message: This review transforms fragmented critiques of the Caprini VTE risk assessment model into a structured, evidence-based roadmap for its evolution, proposing that the identified refinement pathways are interdependent components of a future intelligent, multi-modal assessment framework.