Diagnostic and characterization techniques for historic masonries with rising damp: a systematic literature review

Abstract The conservation of historic masonry affected by rising damp requires accurate diagnosis and interventions compatible with the nature of the materials. This study presents a systematic literature review of advanced diagnostic and material characterization techniques applied to rising damp in heritage buildings. Searches were conducted in eight databases (Scopus, Web of Science, Wiley Online Library, Engineering Village, Springer Nature Link, Taylor & Francis, MDPI and ScienceDirect) using structured Boolean strings adapted to each source. A total of 351 records were identified, and, after PRISMA-based screening, 44 studies were finally included. The most frequent techniques were Infrared Thermography (IRT), Ion Chromatography (IC), X-ray Diffraction (XRD), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Mercury Intrusion Porosimetry (MIP), often combined with standardized moisture and salt tests such as EN 15,801, EN 13,755 and EN 16,322. The review organizes these methods across macroscopic, microscopic and molecular/elemental analytical levels, encompassing in situ, non-destructive and laboratory-based approaches, and highlights multimodal workflows in which preliminary screening (e.g. IRT and other in situ tools) is followed by confirmatory analyses (e.g. IC, XRD, protocol-based tests) and microstructural assessment (e.g. SEM, MIP). The findings show that integrated use of complementary techniques improves the understanding of moisture and salt dynamics, supports the selection of compatible materials and informs conservation strategies. The review also identifies methodological gaps, including the limited use of AI- or machine-learning-based data integration, the absence of standard calibration materials for historic substrates and the need for low-cost diagnostic tools in contexts with restricted access to advanced instrumentation.