This study investigates the urban heat island (UHI) effect and temperature trends in urban and rural areas of Agra, India, by using 2-m temperature data from the ERA-5 dataset for the period 1961–2020. A comprehensive temporal analysis is done in both urban and rural areas to explore temperature variation on a seasonal, decadal and climatological basis. Seasonal and decadal analyses indicate that urban areas experience higher temperatures than rural regions, especially during winter and pre-monsoon seasons. The UHI intensity has decreased in recent decades and the temperature in rural areas has been continuously increasing and shifting towards urban areas. The Mann–Kendall and Sen’s slope tests were applied to find significant temperature trends. The statistical test was significant during the monsoon season in both urban and rural areas. This study suggests that UHI mitigation strategies are needed in Agra, which has implications for public health, energy use and urban development.
Dubey et al. (2026) studied this question.