Access Without Equity? A Critical Examination of Enrollment, Retention and Learning Outcomes among Slum Children

Education is widely recognized as a central instrument of social transformation and human development. However, its equitable distribution remains a persistent challenge, particularly among marginalized populations residing in urban slums. This study critically examines the status of primary education among children living in the slum settlements of Chetru and Salangari near Dharamshala in Himachal Pradesh, India. Using a qualitative research design, the study draws upon field-based evidence collected through interviews with parents, teachers and school administrators, supplemented by direct observation. The findings reveal a complex paradox, while enrollment rates are nearly universal largely due to policy interventions such as the Right to Education Act (RTE) and the Mid-Day Meal Scheme however issues of irregular attendance, low learning outcomes and limited educational continuity persist. Socio-economic deprivation, parental illiteracy, child labour, and institutional constraints emerge as key barriers to meaningful education. The study interprets these findings through the lenses of Bourdieu’s theory of cultural capital, Sen’s capability approach and Freire’s critical pedagogy, arguing that access to schooling does not necessarily translate into educational empowerment. The paper concludes that structural inequalities continue to shape educational experiences, thereby limiting the transformative potential of education in slum contexts. Policy recommendations emphasize the need for quality-focused interventions, community engagement and systemic accountability. Keywords: Slum education, educational inequality, learning outcomes, cultural capital, capability approach, India, primary education, social exclusion