Differential physiological, nutritional and molecular responses to lead stress in garden balsam and ornamental kale

Abstract Lead is a widespread environmental pollutant with high toxicity. Ornamental plants are promising candidates for phytoremediation because they provide aesthetic value and are not directly used in human nutrition. In this study, Pb stress was induced in garden balsam and ornamental cabbage by applying 0, 100, 200, and 400 ppm Pb(NO 3 ) 2 , and their physiological, biochemical, and molecular responses were examined to evaluate their tolerance and phytoremediation potential. Pb accumulation was mainly concentrated in roots, with higher levels in ornamental cabbage. Pb exposure altered nutrient uptake, although the extent of this effect varied depending on the element and plant species. Ion leakage and turgor pressure were moderately affected, but damage remained below thresholds for irreversible injury, indicating tolerance. Chlorophyll content was maintained, likely due to stable magnesium levels. Biomass was largely unaffected and slightly increased under some conditions. Proline accumulated in garden balsam at higher Pb levels but decreased in ornamental cabbage. Total soluble proteins declined in garden balsam but increased in ornamental cabbage, reflecting stronger protein homeostasis. Heat shock proteins (HSP60 and HSP23) were strongly induced in ornamental cabbage, whereas garden balsam showed limited or declining expression. Overall, ornamental cabbage demonstrated higher detoxification and stress tolerance, highlighting its greater potential for phytoremediation of Pb-contaminated environments.