Language and/or Literacy Disorders vs. Language Differences in Multilingual Children: Development of Two Detection Questionnaires

Early identification of language and literacy disorders (LLDs) in multilingual children remains a challenge in linguistically diverse educational systems shaped by ongoing migration. In many contexts, including Greece and Cyprus, where LLDs have been poorly investigated, teachers lack screening tools that can reliably distinguish typical multilingual development from possible indicators of LLDs. This study presents the development and preliminary piloting of two teacher-report screening questionnaires for multilingual children aged 4–6 and 6–9 years, designed for use in everyday classroom settings to support early identification and referral. A structured multi-stage procedure guided development. First, items were derived from internationally established clinical markers of multilingual LLDs, covering oral language, phonological awareness, communication, literacy, and related cognitive domains. Second, a scoring framework was created to support consistent, referral-oriented interpretation across languages. Third, the questionnaires were reviewed by specialists in linguistics, education, and speech-language therapy. Fourth, pilot testing with teachers evaluated clarity, feasibility, and classroom relevance. Expert and teacher feedback indicated that the questionnaires are practical and support differentiation between multilinual language differences and potential underlying difficulties. Overall, this study introduces two promising cross-linguistic screening tools for educators in multilingual educational settings, currently undergoing psychometric validation.