Between Warfare and Craftsmanship: In Situ XRF Analysis of Illyrian Helmets from Across Albania

Illyrian helmets represent a key element of Iron Age martial culture in the western Balkans, reflecting technological knowledge, workshop traditions, and long-distance cultural exchange. Based on the currently available archaeological record, Illyrian helmets are first attested in contexts dating to the 8th–7th centuries BC, with finds concentrated in Greece and the central and western Balkans, including Macedonia, Albania, Dalmatia, and the wider interior. Over time, the form developed into several variants (Types I–IIIB). This study presents the elemental characterization of the total set of 27 Illyrian helmets excavated in Albania and currently preserved in local museum collections, a region where the later types are particularly well attested. As the helmets are intact and exhibited in museums, portable in situ XRF analysis was employed. The main research questions addressed how the alloy composition, including minor and trace elements, reflects local metallurgical practices and distinguishes Illyrian helmets from similar helmets in neighboring regions. The results indicate the consistent use of bronze alloys dominated by copper (89–95%) with low- to medium-tin contents (3.5–9.9%), consistent with established alloying practices for durable protective equipment. Minor and trace elements, including iron (up to 1.5%), lead (up to 0.76%), arsenic (up to 0.09%), zinc (up to 1.17%), and antimony (up to 2.36%), likely reflect metallurgical choices, recycling practices, or impurities linked to regional copper deposits. Principal Component Analysis of four retained components, collectively accounting for 88.5% of the total variance, confirms a broadly standardized bronze tradition, with compositional outliers suggesting locally variable ore sources or recycling rather than systematic typological change. These elemental signatures, particularly the association of arsenic, antimony, zinc, and iron, suggest regional metallurgical characteristics consistent with Albanian sulphide ore deposits, while the overall compositional homogeneity supports the hypothesis of centralized production at workshops such as Epidamnus and Apollonia.