Temperament, Prosociality, and Cultural Differences in Declarative Pointing: A Multi-Method Study

This study examined the associations between declarative pointing gestures, temperament traits (surgency, regulation ability, and negative affectivity), and prosociality in Italian and Dutch infants aged 12–15 months. A multi-method approach was employed, combining maternal reports and experimental observations across three emotion-eliciting contexts (pleasant, neutral, and unpleasant stimuli). Three key findings emerged: (a) Dutch infants produced more pointing than Italian infants, both according to maternal reports and in response to unpleasant stimuli directed toward the experimenter; (b) temperamental surgency was not linked to pointing, while regulation and negative affectivity showed differential associations with pointing across emotional context, social partners, and cultures; and (c) prosociality predicted more pointing toward unpleasant stimuli in Dutch infants. Moreover, children’s age and sex influenced declarative pointing, while maternal education did not. These findings highlight that early socio-communicative development, such as declarative pointing, is shaped by individual and contextual factors, including temperament, prosociality, partner familiarity, emotional contexts, and culture. The results underscore the value of a multi-systemic and multi-method approach to understanding early development, while also offering several theoretical, research, and practical implications. Particularly, these include moving beyond West–East dichotomies, providing targeted stimulation for infants high in negative affectivity, supporting well-regulated children in novel or high-intensity situations, promoting parenting that fosters individual responsibility and emotional expression, and ensuring culturally sensitive clinical assessment and interventions.