Evaluating material recovery environmental impacts and economic feasibility of e-waste management in India

Abstract The accelerating consumption of electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) has led to rapid growth in waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE), which is currently the fastest-growing waste stream worldwide. E-waste contains valuable resources such as gold, copper, and rare earth elements, but also hazardous substances including lead and cadmium, making its sustainable management a critical environmental and economic challenge. This study applies a PRISMA-guided systematic review of 122 peer-reviewed studies (2014–2024) combined with quantitative analysis of e-waste generation, material recovery potential, life-cycle environmental impacts, and techno-economic feasibility for the Indian context. Globally, e-waste generation reached approximately 62 Mt in 2022, yet less than half was formally recycled, leaving an estimated USD 45 billion in recoverable materials unreclaimed annually. In India, approximately 4.14 Mt of e-waste was generated in 2022, yet only about 1.4% entered formal recycling systems. Population-scaled estimates indicate that Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal, and Madhya Pradesh together account for nearly 45% of India’s total e-waste generation. Material composition analysis indicated a potential recovery of approximately 57,000 tonnes of critical and precious metals, with an estimated market value of USD 4.9 billion. Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA) revealed environmental trade-offs between recycling pathways: pyrometallurgical recovery emitted about 25% more greenhouse gases but required 18% less energy than hydrometallurgical processing. Techno-economic evaluation using Net Present Value (NPV) and Benefit–Cost Ratio (BCR) indicators showed stronger financial feasibility for hydrometallurgical recovery, with an estimated national NPV of USD 1.2 billion and a BCR of 1.45 under baseline assumptions. The findings suggest that hydrometallurgical or hybrid recovery strategies, supported by stronger Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) enforcement, integration of informal recycling actors, and investment in advanced recycling infrastructure, could significantly enhance resource recovery while reducing environmental impacts, thereby supporting the transition toward a circular economy-based e-waste management system in India. The results represent comparative assessments based on published datasets and secondary sources and therefore highlight general trends and policy implications rather than exact national operational estimates. Graphical Abstract