Marine controlled source electromagnetic (CSEM) surveys have been proven to be an effective tool in hydrocarbon exploration, principally due to the method’s ability (in the right circumstances) to identify electrical resistivity contrasts between hydrocarbon-saturated and brine-saturated sedimentary units. However, the sensitivity of such surveys decreases in shallow water, for deeper targets, and for targets with limited horizontal extent. In principle, the resolution and sensitivity of a survey can be improved by moving either the transmitting or the receiving dipoles into the sub-surface. We have therefore investigated the sensitivity of Seafloor to Borehole CSEM (sbCSEM) survey geometries, specifically for the case of simplified targets with small lateral dimensions in shallow water areas—including targets whose depth of burial substantially exceeds their lateral extent. The results are encouraging. Neither small target size nor shallow water presents obstacles in principle to the use of this approach. Our models reveal distinct lobes in the patterns of electric field and current density amplitudes around a sub-seafloor transmitting dipole. The shape, positions and amplitudes of these lobes are all strongly modified by the presence of one or more small resistive targets, and they are strongly influenced by the positions of target edges. These effects significantly modify the pattern of electric fields at the seafloor and hence result in good sensitivity for realistic survey geometries. Small targets can be detected by seafloor receivers when the sub-seafloor transmitting dipole is located at some distance laterally outside the targets—leading to potential applications in ‘step-out’ prospecting. The asymmetry of responses at the seafloor from targets that are offset with respect to transmitter location has potential applications in field appraisal, while monitoring of reservoirs during production provides another possible application. Varying the depth of the transmitter down the borehole generates a Vertical EM Profiling (VEMP) survey—analogous to Vertical Seismic Profiling (VSP)—and we demonstrate that this too can have useful applications. Modelling for deeper (3 km sub-seafloor) targets continues to yield encouraging results and suggests that step-out sbCSEM may be effective at depths beyond the detection limit of conventional seafloor–seafloor CSEM.
Baranwal et al. (2026) studied this question.