Abstract Carbon Capture and Sequestration (CCS) is an important technique that can help many countries reduce their CO 2 footprint and assist in achieving net zero goals. This study presents various geophysical techniques that enable monitoring of CO 2 plume migration within the subsurface and detection of leaks. This approach will enable the safe and long-term storage of CO 2 at the CCS site. Seismic methods, including time-lapse vertical seismic profiling (VSP) and microseismic monitoring, provide high-resolution tracking of CO 2 plume migration. At the same time, non-seismic techniques, such as gravimetry, electrical resistivity tomography (ERT), and fiber optic sensing, offer complementary insights into subsurface changes. Laboratory and field scale testing has shown the impact of salinity, pressure, and temperature on the geophysical response of the CO 2 -sequestrated reservoir, which underscores the use of a multi-prong testing approach for a better understanding of the reservoir dynamics and monitoring of the CCS plume within the subsurface. The case studies of the Sleipner project, the Cranfield CCS site in Mississippi, and the MRCSP in Michigan Basin show the effectiveness of time-lapse gravity surveys conducted using various gravimeters. This paper provides a critical review of various monitoring methods that have evolved over time, focusing on their accuracy, sensitivity, and reliability.
Shahid et al. (2026) studied this question.