Perceived Neighborhood Cohesion Across the Life Course and Late-Life Friendship: Evidence From the U.S. Health and Retirement Study

How does neighborhood cohesion across the life course shape late-life friendship? Using longitudinal data from the Health and Retirement Study, this study examines how neighborhood cohesion in childhood, midlife, and late life influences structural, behavioral, and affective dimensions of friendship in older adulthood. Marginal structural generalized estimating equations models estimate independent and cumulative effects across life stages. Neighborhood cohesion at all three stages is independently associated with a greater number of close friends and stronger perceived support. The association between childhood cohesion and contact frequency operates indirectly through midlife and late-life cohesion. Midlife and late-life cohesion are significantly linked to late-life friendship outcomes. Findings partially support cumulative (dis)advantage frameworks while highlighting the particularly salient role of midlife and late-life contexts. Results underscore the importance of integrating place and time into theories of aging and social integration.