Maternal high-fat/high-sugar diet has single-generation dental effects and two-generation skeletal effects in adult offspring mice

Abstract Background Maternal nutrition is increasingly recognized as a modulator of offspring skeletal development. While genetics has long been considered the primary determinant of craniofacial morphology, emerging evidence suggests that prenatal and early postnatal dietary exposures also influence facial morphology. However, how maternal diet differentially affects male and female craniofacial structures remains unclear. This study aimed to examine the effects of a maternal high-fat, high-sugar (HFHS) diet on craniofacial and dental morphology in first- (F1) and second- (F2) generation adult mice. Materials and methods Female mice were fed a HFHS diet for 6 weeks before mating and throughout pregnancy and lactation. F1 offspring were weaned to a standard chow diet, and a subset of female F1 offspring were bred to produce F2 offspring, also maintained on chow. Craniofacial skeletal and dental structures of adult F1 and F2 mice at 1-year of age were assessed using micro-computed tomography for linear and geometric morphometrics. Results HFHS diet exposure significantly reduced midfacial and mandibular length in F1 females, and these effects persisted in F2 females. In males, cranial and mandibular morphology were not affected. Tooth size was reduced in both sexes of F1 offspring but not in F2. Conclusion Maternal HFHS diet induces jaw-specific changes in offspring craniofacial morphology, with subtle skeletal differences observed in females across both generations. By contrast, dental effects did not persist beyond one generation. These findings highlight the potential for maternal dietary habits to exert both immediate and transgenerational influences on offspring facial form that may persist into adulthood.