Physically interpretable AlphaEarth foundation model embeddings enable LLM-based land surface intelligence

Satellite foundation models produce dense embeddings whose physical interpretability remains poorly understood, limiting their integration into environmental decision systems. Using 12.1 million samples across the Continental United States (2017–2023), we first present a comprehensive interpretability analysis of Google AlphaEarth’s 64-dimensional embeddings against 26 environmental variables spanning climate, vegetation, hydrology, temperature, and terrain. Combining linear, nonlinear, and attention-based methods, we show that individual embedding dimensions map onto specific land surface properties, while the full embedding space reconstructs most environmental variables with high fidelity (12 of 26 variables exceed R 2 > 0 . 90 ; temperature and elevation approach R 2 = 0 . 97 ). The strongest dimension-variable relationships converge across all three analytical methods and remain robust under spatial block cross-validation (mean Δ R 2 = 0 . 017 ) and temporally stable across all seven study years (mean inter-year correlation r = 0 . 963 ). Building on these validated interpretations, we then developed a Land Surface Intelligence system that implements retrieval-augmented generation over a FAISS-indexed embedding database of 12.1 million vectors, translating natural language environmental queries into satellite-grounded assessments. An LLM-as-Judge evaluation across 360 query–response cycles, using four LLMs in rotating generator, system, and judge roles, achieved weighted scores of μ = 3 . 74 ± 0 . 77 (scale 1–5), with grounding ( μ = 3 . 93 ) and coherence ( μ = 4 . 25 ) as the strongest criteria. Our results demonstrate that satellite foundation model embeddings are physically structured representations that can be operationalized for environmental and geospatial intelligence. • AlphaEarth satellite foundation model embeddings encode physically interpretable Earth surface properties spanning temperature, vegetation, hydrology, and terrain. • Embedding-environmental variable relationships demonstrate spatial generalization and temporal stability. • Dimension interpretations enable retrieval-augmented generation for natural language environmental queries. • LLM-as-Judge evaluation with rotating model roles demonstrates the grounding of land intelligence system responses.